Preparedness Theory Essay Research Paper How has

Preparedness Theory Essay, Research Paper

How has preparedness theory attempted to integrate a Pavlovian model of the acquisition of specific phobias with this biological specificity. What is the status of Preparedness theory today.

When confronted with a phobic object or situation an individual appears to have little control and no alternative but to avoid the feared object or situation (Ohman & Soares, 1993). Consequently, individuals with a phobia can be vulnerable to anxiety induced automatic reactions to an object or situation which in turn can place major restrictions on everyday life (Ohman & Soares, 1993). Phobias are characterised as a conditioned reaction that is specific, persistent, intense and irrational with a compelling need to avoid the phobic object or situation (Reber, 1995). The majority of phobias concentrate on a small number of fear inducing stimuli such as snakes, spiders, heights, thunder and confined spaces. These biological stimuli are more likely to develop into a phobia than non-biological stimuli such as firearms, broken glass and motor cars, even though humans are more likely to have an aversive experience with non-biological stimuli. Preparedness theory was introduced by Seligman (1971) whereby the concept of preparedness attempts to explain why fears and phobias are so much more likely to occur with biological stimuli than non-biological stimuli (Davey, 1995). I will discuss classical conditioning and preparedness theory and how preparedness theory has attempted to integrate a Pavlovian model of the acquisition of specific phobias with this biological specificity. Further, a contemporary status of preparedness theory is discussed by means of an evaluation of available evidence.

Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov established the study of classical conditioning (Bourne & Russo, 1998). Kalat (1998) states that classical conditioning involves a modification of involuntary behaviour. In this process, a neutral stimulus that causes no natural response in an organism is associated with an unconditioned stimulus (US), an event that automatically or naturally causes a response (Bourne & Russo, 1998). This association causes the response to the US, the unconditioned response (UR), to transfer to the neutral stimulus (Bourne & Russo, 1998). The US no longer needs to be there for the response to occur in the presence of the former neutral stimulus. Given that this response is not natural and has to be learned, the response is now a conditioned response (CR) and the neutral stimulus is now a conditioned stimulus (CS) (Bourne & Russo, 1998). In Pavlov’s experiment a tone was the neutral stimulus that was associated with the US of food. The UR of salivation became a CR to the newly CS of the tone (Schwartz & Robbins, 1995). The function of the Pavlovian model of classical conditioning is primarily to assist an organism in preparing for some forthcoming important event (Kalat, 1998). Classical conditioning when applied to phobias, postulate that the response of phobic fear is a reflex acquired to non-dangerous stimuli. For example the normal fear to a dangerous stimulus, such as a poisonous snake, has been over generalised to non-poisonous snakes as well. However Ohman & Soares (1993) maintain classical conditioning does not account for the disassociation between cognitions and conditioned behaviour.

According to Marks (1989) most dangers that humans are likely come across have already been encountered by our ancestors. In the past, those who responded to danger lived longer and had more descendants. Marks (1989) describe prepotency as a physiological system that makes an organism respond attentively to certain cues. Further, organisms are predisposed to learn certain reactions to particular stimulus, such as fear rather than nausea is the reaction to snakes and heights where as rotting food would elicit a nauseous response instead of fear. Marks (1989) maintains this is preparedness and prepotent attention to particular stimulus is the first step toward prepared reactions. As indicated by Marks (1989) prepared learning of fear is somewhat mediated by the reactions of peers. Studies of observational learning of fear of snakes in rhesus monkeys indicate that monkeys who are not initially afraid of snakes will rapidly acquire an intense fear when they have watched conspecifics exhibiting such fear (Mineka 1894, cited in Marks, 1989). Furthermore, monkeys fail to acquire fear toward leaves or flowers using the same paradigm, such that prepotency and preparedness lead to a non-random distribution of fears.

According to Seligman (1970, cited in McNally, 1987) human beings and certain animals have a biological preparedness for certain occurrences and forms of conditioning. Further, the notion of preparedness applies to associations not to stimuli or responses and it is assumed that people need a learning episode for a fear to develop. On a continuum, some organisms become strongly conditioned on a single trial and others become conditioned weakly or not at all as viewed by Seligman (1970, cited in McNally, 1987). Seligman (1971; Davey, 1995) claim that organisms can be prepared – a tendency to learn an association quickly; non-prepared – middle of the continuum where learned associations are acquired neither quickly nor slowly; or contra-prepared – opposite limit, where an organism learns an association on