The losses among old native words in the English language

1. Different factors wich had the influence on the English language
History of the English language is one of the fundamental courses forming linguistic background of a specialist in philology.
Many factors influenced this language, converting it into the prevalently analytical language of today, with scarcity of nominal forms and a verbal system that much outweights the systems of many other European languages in its segmentation of the verbal component. It has many more borrowings than the majority of tongues and is magnificently flexible in adjusting to any need to express a new notion.Without knowing the language we just feel that some words in English are borrowed, some have very close meanings, some form their paradigmatic forms regularly and some have irregular forms.
The inclusion of such high-frequency elements as articles, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs and numerals, or, at least, the majority of them, in the body of inherited lexical items, underlines their centrality in function and explains the completely different proportion of native words to borrowed words in actual language use.
However, a lot of element,important for future development for English, had been lost during the different periods and process. The locess among some words has changed not only their stryctyre, but also their meanings.
The passing out of use of large numbers of Old English words and their displacement, in a great many cases, by lexical items from other, especially Romance, languages did, among other things, notably diminish the original similarities in lexis between English and German. At the present unsatisfactory state of Old English lexicography and of the historical study of lexis in general, the reasons for the disappearance of particular individual words are difficult to give.
Obviously, the potential conditioning factors underlying lexical changes of the kind under consideration are manifold and include pressure from outside the system as well as pressures which result from changes within the system (or 'intrasystemic changes). Among the factors of the latter kind which have been assigned a more or less important role in the process, there are for example avoidance of am-biguity which may arise from either insufficient phonetic distinctiveness or complete loss of such phonetic distinctiveness of two or more words due to phonetic changes (also described as 'conflict of homonyms' or 'homonymic clash') or, much less frequently, from the representation of a diversity of meanings by a single word(‘polysemy’).
The possibility of reduction of, or deficiency in, phonetic substance as s cause (or one of the causes) of the loss of words has been pointed out , for example, in connection with Old English lexical items like (w)(>ME) `law, marriage, etc.` (cogn w G Ehe), `(>ME ) (cogn w OHG aha, preserved in place names in –ach or –a)`a body of water , river, stream, `and others. `Greater phonetic suitability`, or `greater expressiveness`, may have been one of the reasons, for example, for the falling into disuse of EmodE nim (>OE niman (cogn w HG nehmen)) and its replacement by take (>ON), but does , on the whole, represent a factor difficult to objectify. Sound-changes brought about coalescene of form, or phonetic similarity, or , in other words, homonymy or near – homonymy, in case like the tollowing: OE br d(e) (cogn w OHG brato Braten) > ME brede, (varr breden, bread, etc.) and OE bread (cogn w OHG brot) > ME bred, varr brede2 (and breed, bread). Compare:
l)swines brede is swl e swete, swa is of wilde dere {a 1225)
2)spare nother mete nor drynke, and spare for no dyrthe of wyne nor of brede (roasted meat) (a 1475)
3)he shal renne to toune and brynge vs breed (bread) and wyn (c 1390)
4)pe more plente рои hast of flesche, pe lasse the nedep to spende of brede (bread) (a 1450)
The group is enlarged by OE bred(u) (cogn w OHG breiti`breadth') > ME brede, and OE bred(pl bredu) (cogn w OHG bret `board') > ME bred/brede. Compare:
euerych body hap bese pre dymmensiouns: lengpe, brede, and pikkenesse (a 1398)
the knyghte (knights) that wer slayn lygges per on brede ('far and wide') (?a 1400)
Jonas watz flowen (had fled)in-to pe bopem of pe bot (boat) and on a brede
(board, plank) lyggede (lay)(c 1400)
Coalescence of form also occurred in the case of OE h Ian (cogn w OHG heilen) > ME helen(n), and OE helan (also forhelan) (cogn w OHG helan in ModHG (verhelen) > ME hele(n), and in many other cases.
It cannot be entirely ruled out, at least, that the pressure of homonymy either caused, or contributed to, the passing out of use of words such as ME brede, (roast (ed) meat) or hele(n) (conceal, hide, etc.) and also played a part in other cases. however, the role of homonymic pressure as a cause of the dying out of words must not be overestimated. Identity in sound has, because of the disambiguating role of the context , in many cases not proved an obstacle of the continued use of lexical items, and lexical displacement occured in numerous cases no homonymy was present. To account for these, other factors will have to be looked for.
2. Internal displacement
A number of words of Old English origin (including certain early loans from Latin) were given up at an earlier or later date without there being any pressure from 'outTheir function was taken over by other items which had, together with them, formed part of the lexicon of Old English. In the following sample, the German word added in brackets is derived from the same source as the lost Old English item (which is not to say, of course, that the two can in any case be considered as completely identical in meaning). The Old English word which has replaced the lost item (in some or all of its meanings) is placed after the German word. Compare examples like the-following:
eofor, EME ever (Eber; boar < OE bar), e(o)sol (Esel; ass < assa), hana (Hahn; cock < cocc), frox/forsc, ME fros(c)h (Frosch; frog < frozza, ME frogge), heced/ h ced (MLG heket, Hecht; pike < pic 'point', the fish being so named from its pointed snout); zafol/zealfol (Gabel; fork < forca, force, ME forke), feal(le), ME falle (cp falle, or mows trappe) (Falle; trap < tr ppe), mur (< Lat) (Mauer; wall < we(a)ll(aboute his hals an anker was put
if a mylne stoon be put about his nekke
his hals breke
pat abbot brak his nekke and deide
in two scho cutte hir owene hals
hire throte on two he kulte
For verbs compare examples like the following:
Die an!adiedan(toten;kill < OE *cyllan), leran, ME lere(n) (lehren; teach OE heam ), snidan (schneiden; cut < OE *cyttan, ME cutten, kitten, ketten), zrafan, ME graven (1. begraben, vergraben, eingraben; bury < ME birien, burien, berien < OE byrzan; 2. graben, umgraben, etc.; dig < ?), and others. Compare ME:
clerkes hem lerede Aslronomige and arsmetike
the maister lesith his tyme to lerе whanne the disciple wol not here
pere ben manye pilgrytmes graven; gravyn or beryyd
let him be beried in my grave beside me
byryyn or gravn or hydde vndur the grounde
why burieth a man his goodes?
pai grove a pitte by fore my face
the pit which the princes diggeden.
he grove pe erde and sew it all him selve
thei myght noght digge the erthe for hardenesse of the roche
The adjectives so lost include, for example, scyldiz, ME schuldi, etc. (schudig; guilty < zyltiz), sw r(e), etc. (schwer; heavy, etc. < hefiz), st zel (steil; steep steap), sw(e)art (schwarz; black < bl c), and others.
3.Displacement of native words by loans from other languages
Lexical borrowing from Scandinavian, French and Latin resulted in a substantial number of cases in the ousting of semantically equivalent or similar words of native origin (as well as of certain Old English or pre-Old English loans from Latin). The list of lexical items which were replaced by Scandinavian loan-words includes among others the following: fenetier ( EME ei(e)-thirl, etc), ME and EModE fenester (reinforced by OF fenestre) (Fenster; window ME erre, irre, etc.) (Zorn; anger < ME anger; beside wrath < ME wrарре, wrathe < OE wr ppu); niman, ME nimen (nehmen; take < LOE tacan, ME tdke(n)), and others. Compare the following Middle English sentences:
I ranne to pe fenestre of my chaumbre
as sche atte a fenestre wyndowe lay (1410)
pe prince he nom wip him
in armes him no man nam, pat he downe ...ne caste
(26) Symeon ... tok hym ine hys earmes
Among the much larger group of Old finally taken by loans from French or Latin, respectively, there were many which Were originally shared by English and German and have been preserved to the present day in Modern German. For example:
stund (Slunde; hour < ME (h)ure,(h)oure , wiznes (Ewigkeit; eternity < ME eternite), Angle ldu/elde, ME elde (Alter; age < ME age), ME yereday (Jahrestag; anniversary < ME); lyft, lyft, lift, left (Luft: air < ME eyr, ay(e)r, air), swefl (Schwefel; sulphur, sulfur < ME soufre/sulphe(e)re); dre, der, ME edre, adre (Ader; ME vein), stemn, stefn, ME steven(e) (Stimme; voice < ME vois, voys); br de, ME brede(n), brade(n) (Braten; a roast, roasted (or grilled) meat < ME rost(ed) mete/ftessh), senep (Senf; mustard), ofet(t), EME oft (Obst, LG/ /; ME fruit), cirse (Kirsche; cherry < ME cheri(e), chiri(e)), leax/l x (Lachs; salmon < ME saumoun , samon); bocst f, EME bocstaf (beside staff) (Buchstabe; letter < ME / lettre), bibtio (< Lat), EME bibliotece (Bibliothek; library < ME librarie), teld (Zelt; tent < ME tente), ME heved toun(Hauptstadt; capital < ME capital cite (beside chef toun and chef cite)); size (Sieg; victory < ME viciorie), frid, fri(o)du, freopu, ME freop, frith (Frieden; peace < ME pais, Pes/pees, beside ME grith < LOE zrip < ON, ME seht -, sahtnesse < ON, ME sibbe < OE sib(b)), here, ME fer(e) (Heer; army < LME arme(e), beside ME host, (h)oost < OF, and (less frequently) ME ferde < OE fi(e)rd/fyrd, Angl fe(o)rd), h le(d) (MHG heft, Held; hero); r d/red, ME red (Rat; counsel, advice < ME counse(i)l,avys/avis/advys/advise) ,dom, ME doom ('Urteil'; ME jugement),forbod (Verbot;prohibition < ME prohibicioun); zebed, ME bed(e) (surviving in ModE bead) (Gebet; prayer); wbreca, -bryca, EME eu-brekere, -br che (Ehebrecher; adulterer < EME adulter), w-bryce, EME eu-bruche (Ehebruch; adultery < ME adultrie, adultery, beside spousebreche); (ze-pyld (Geduld; patience < ME patience), ME unwitenesse (Unwissenheit; ignorance); sidu (Sitte; custom < ME custume, costom), ze-weald, on-, an-weald, EME an-, onwald, etc. (Gewalt; power < ME poer,power(e)); ME for(e)del (Vorteil; advantage < ME avantage, a(d)vauntage), ME after-del (Nachteil; disadvantage < ME disavauntage); earm (mother's brother, as against OE f dera 'father's brother'), ME em (Oheim; uncle < ME unkel, uncle), yrfe-, rfe-numa, EME irve-, arf, erve-name (Erbnehmer, Erbe; heir < ME eir, eyr, heyr); scyldiza (beside zyltend, ME giltere, etc.) (Schuldiger; debtor < ME dettour), zisl (ON gisl), EME glsel (Geisel; hostage < ME (h)ostage), forezenza, EME for(e)-gengel (Vorganger; predecessor < ME predecessour), fterzenza, EME aftergenge(l), ME after-comer (Nachfolger, Nachkomme; successor, descendant < ME successour, etc.), ME god-doer, good-doer (Wohltater; benefactor < ME benefetour, benefacto(u)r), EME r desmen, redesmen (Ratsleute, Ratgeber; adviser(s) post-ME, counsellor(s) < ME conse(i)ler/counseiler), ME domes-man ('Richter'; judge < ME iuge, justice < ME iustise, justyce, etc.), (ceap-, cyp-man, ME chapman (Kaufmann; merchant MedE duke), underpeodda, ME underling, etc. (Untertan; subject < ME suget/subject), leode/liode, ME leode/ledes, etc. (Leute; people < ME puple, peple), boda, bodan, ME bode (Bote; messenger < ME messager, massagere, messenger, messanger, messynger), and others. Compare Middle English instances like:
(29) i am twelve zer of elde
(30) he scarsly fyve yeer was of age
31)fleod pa fuzeles feor i(n) pan luft e (var pa lifte)
32)fowles ftow furth in the ayre
33)pa wunede (lived) abram in welde and in frid (a 1325)
34) ne breac (broke) na man his frid
35) Metridas braak pe pees (a 1387]
36) God drouned pe king with all his her (a 1400)
he and all his (h)oste ware drouned
hie askeden here godes (their Gods') red
he asked of hem counseile and her aduys
thus the bataille was grete and oftsydes (often) that one party was at fordele and anone at an afterdele (a 1470)
Phelip was Aristobolus his eme and unkel (a 1387)
him of hem zisles
y shal zyue to thin aftircomers alle thes regiouns
he sende his boden to Belin
Edmunde sent his messengers
Until pe ebbe a stounde they bod (waited)
We zeued (give) unede for his luue a stuche (OE stycce, cogn w HG Stuck) of ure brerde (bread) (a 1225)
a pece of breid (bread)
The list of obsolete Old English adjectives includes for example earm, EME rm/arm (arm; poor < ME pov(e)re, poure, etc.; miserable, unfortunate); feondlic, EME fendli(ch) (feindlich; hostile, inimikal); ME fleting(flussig, fleissend;liquid < ME liquyd), frem(e)de, ME fremed, fremd, etc. (fremd; foreign < ME forein, etc.; strange < ME straunge; alien < ME alien), cp also ME frem(e)d(Fremder; a stranger ME straunge(r), foreigner < ME forein(er); an alien (cf ME fremed and frendes
'strangers and relatives`); Angl sceone/scene, ME sheene (schon; beautiful < ME bewteful, etc.); anmod (einmutig; unanimous (18th c.)), lonzmod(langmutig; patient ME pacient ),and so on.
Compare the following Middle English examples:
of fremde land; of forein londes sholen 5e here
ne fremed god bid saltou (shalt thou) noght
(51)pou schalt not haue alien goddis bifore me
Among the Old English verbs replaced in Middle English or post-Middle English times by Romance loans there are for example: br dan/bredan, ME brede(n) (braten; roast < ME roste(n); fry < ME frie(n);broil < ME broile(n)); smidian, ME smythe(n) (schmieden; forge < ME forge(n)); dynzan, ME dunge(n) (dungen; manure, fertilize, LME manoure(n)). ME fange(n)/fonge(n)(OE fon) (fangen; catch < ME cacche(n); capture), (a)hreddan, ME (a)redde{n) (retten; save < MS save(n); deliver < ME delivere(n), ME rescue(n)), aliesan, alysan (erlosen; redeem ModE thatch) (bedecken; cover < ME covere(n), cuver, etc.), helan, forhelan, Meforhele(n) (verhehlen; conceal < ME concele(n)), swizian (schweigen; to be silent/quiet, to keep silence: ME silence), manian (mahnen; admonish < ME amonishen/admonishen; exhort ME remaine(n); stay < LME staie(n)), full-endian, ME ul- ende(n) (vollenden; complete, accomplish, carry out, finish) (all ME). Compare the following Middle English examples:
52) his fl sce he gon (began to) breden
53) fishez brad on pe gledes
54) porke that is fried; broylyd mete, or rostyd on the colys
55) d r weard se eorl of Normanding gefangen (Pet Chron, an 1106)
56) pa he us alysde fram pam ecam deade(c 1175)
57) forhele (var concele) y nille (I will not), ac al pe sope ichil (I will) pe (thee) telle
58)zho (she) bil f wipp hire frend
59)dar tur in Babel bi-lef unmand
60) into pe tyme pat pe cure be fulendid
61) whanne thou has fulendid to rede this book


prevalently
scarcity
outweigh
adjusting
inclusion
high-frequency
centrality
passing out
displacement
Obviously
manifold
intrasystemic
diversity
deficiency
suitability
objectify
coalescenсe
disuse
plank
conceal
overestimated
obstacle
lungs
obsolete
поширено
дефіцит, недостаток
бути тяжчим
наладка, регулювання,
включення
висока частота
центрованість
успішне проходження
переміщення, заміна
Очевидно
Збільшувати, різноманітний, копія
внутрішньосистемний
різноманітність
дефіцит
придатність
заперечувати, протестувати
злиття, зєднання
невживання
дошка
приховувати, маскувати
дуже високо оцінено
перешкода, поміха
легені
застарілий

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